The history of African-Americans Research Paper

The history of African-Americans - Research Paper Example The paper will use the works of different Historians in understanding why Reconstruction Era efforts did not immediately guarantee civil rights and equality to African-Americans. The paper will highlight significant events that contributed to racial violence, cultural identity and black organisations that advanced the movements for social justice and civil rights to African-Americans and ultimately attainment of post-racial American society. The main events that the paper will focus on include the enactment of 13th amendment, Colfax Massacre, Wilmington race riots, Harlem Renaissance, Black power movements and recent election of an African-American as the President of United States. African Americans Introduction A majority of African Americans are the descendants of African slaves that were held in the US from 1600 until 1865. African-Americans were at times referred as the Negro, Blacks, colored Americans and Afro-Americans. African-Americans trace their ancestry from native Africa n tribes in Sub-Sahara Africa (Turner-sadler, 2009). African-Americans mainly came to the US as slaves working for both Portuguese and Spanish settlers. Most of the African-Americans were concentrated in the Southern states and a significant majority worked as slaves in the Southern plantations (Bair, 1997). According to Hornsby (2008), African-Americans history is characterized with racial struggles, violence, agitations for self-identity and determination and ultimately eventual integration in to the mainstream U.S political and social life. Thesis: the history and struggles of African-Americans have greatly contributed to the current civil rights in the United States. Enactment of 13th Amendment and commencement of Reconstruction Era There are numerous significant African-American historical events that shaped the current US bill of rights and social relations in the US. In 1865, American Civil War came to an end after Confederate forces conceded defeat to Union forces (Hornsby, 2008). Accordingly, Freedmen’s Bureau was also established in order to provide education and health services to the emancipated African-American slaves. The first significant event in African-American history was the enactment of the 13th amendment of US constitution in 1865 (Hornsby, 2008). The 13th Amendment effectively ended slavery and involuntary servitude across the United Slaves. McPherson (1971) is of the idea that President Lincoln was concerned that Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 had not effectively prohibited slavery since it had been declared only for Ten Confederate States and not the Border States. McPherson analyses the numerous House of Representative meetings that were geared at enacting the 13th amendments and the intentions of the legislators. According to McPherson, the 13th amendment offered the best opportunity for Reconstruction and end of slavery after the Civil War that had claimed lives of thousands of African-Americans. However, some states did n ot ratify the amendment the same year while others continued to subject blacks to involuntary servitude (Turner-sadler, 2009). The amendment contributed to the end of African-American slaves and later demand for equal human rights with White counterparts (Turner-sadler, 2009). The 13th amendment also paved way for subsequent reconstruction amendments that provided for equal protection under the law and due process in legal proceedings (Turner-sadler, 2009). Colfax Massacre of 1873 The Colfax Massacre that occurred on Easter Sunday 1873 is regarded as another critical event in the history of African-Americans since the end of the civil war (Laird, 2009). During the riots, more than one hundred African-Americans were

The Ghost of Tom Joad and The Grapes of Wrath Essay Example for Free

The Ghost of Tom Joad and The Grapes of Wrath Essay Through the The Ghost of Tom Joad and The Grapes of Wrath, Springsteen and Steinbeck, in their respective works, comment on the state of social distress and despondency existent within their individual societies. Through making parallels with the depression related issues of the 1930s addressed by Steinbeck and those of the early 1990s recession, Springsteen connects the people and social quandaries of both time periods to remark on the necessity of mans spirit. To this end, through investigating each works characterization of human resolve and unification, employment of Tom Joad and Jim Casy to embody mans spirit, and similar social atmosphere, the connection between the thematic force of the novel and Springsteens subsequent writing is made evident. Throughout his lyrics, Springsteen consistently parallels ideas presented by Steinbeck in The Grapes of Wrath in order to exhibit past American spirit in social struggles and the need for such resolve to engender change in his own time. Springsteen achieves this rhythmically through keeping the refrain in a constant ABAB rhyme scheme and other stanzas in an AABB rhyme scheme; this provides a consistency and repetition in the speakers message to the reader, and links his own dilemma in Searchin for the ghost of Tom Joad (R), or mans spirit, to the overall plight of the people made evident the non-refrain stanzas. Additionally, this mirrors Steinbecks effort in The Grapes of Wrath to characterize the migrant struggle through both the microcosm of the Joads and then more broadly in the intercalary chapters. Moreover, Springsteens actual description of the current plight parallels Steinbecks ideas on the downtrodden American. In saying Men walkin long the railroad tracks, Goin someplace, theres no goin back (1-2) the speaker is alluding Steinbecks writing of the tenant men came walkingmaybe we can start againBut you cant start. Only a baby can start (119). Additionally, like The Grapes of Wrath, the depiction of social struggles in The Ghost of Tom Joad becomes gradually stronger in tone and more visceral in visualization as made evident by both artists use of various literary devices. The speakers description In a cardboard box neath the underpass, Got a one-way ticket to the promised land, You got a hole in your belly and a gun in your hand(12-14) provokes imagery of man ready to bring about change through violence. This is also concurrent with Steinbecks depictions of the migrant as said in one intercalary chapter -the rifle? Wouldnt go out naked of a rifle. When shoes and clothes and food, when even hope is gone, well have the rifle.(120) Also, Springsteens employment of personification The highway is alive tonight(R) and metaphors Sleeping on a pillow of solid rock (15) augments his attempt to connect and make more vivid, the plights of those depicted by the speaker in the song. Overall there is a building that occurs within the stanzas; from the beginning depictions of the disposed to the pledges made by Tom in the last non-refrain stanza, there is a progression toward exhibiting the need for mans unification. As Steinbeck builds this idea through the exploits and sacrifices of Ma, Tom, Casy and Rose of Sharon, Springsteen does likewise through his lyrics to transport that idea to the modern day. Furthermore, both works use the characters of Tom Joad and Jim Casy as vehicles for expressing the spirit the destitute need to attain in dealing with their troubles. Through juxtaposing images of the impoverished with those of his own introspection, the speaker (who is himself needy) makes evident the importance of what the characters of Tom Joad and Casy embody and how that representation is needed in society. Throughout the work, the speaker gives various descriptions of the downtrodden American Shelter line stretchin round the corner (5), Families sleepin in their cars in the Southwest, No home no job no peace no rest (7-8), Sleeping on a pillow of solid rock, Bathing in the city aqueduct (15-16). These descriptions, inter-cut with the refrain of Searchin for the ghost of Tom Joad (R), Waitin on the ghost of Tom Joad (R) quite clearly show the speakers desire for a change in condition and will. Moreover, when scrutinizing the diction that references Tom Joad as a ghost the absence of his spirit from humanity is made apparent; a spirit both Springsteen and Steinbeck find paramount in ending the plight of the destitute. Springsteen furthers this point in referencing Toms saying Mom, wherever theres a cop beatin a guy, Wherever a hungry newborn cries, Where theres a fight gainst blood and hatred in the airOr decent job or a helping hand, Wherever somebodys struggling to be free, Look in their eyes Mom youll see me (17-24) Though this typifies what the speaker wishes to see in his contemporaries, it also indirectly alludes to Toms ideals as presented in the novel by paraphrasing his last conversation with Ma. Ill be everwhere-wherever you look.when our folks eat the stuff they raise an live in the houses they build -why, Ill be there(572). The use of allusion is key to Springsteens aims here as when characterizing Casy and evidencing the biblical ties made to him. He pulls a prayer book out of his sleeping bag, Preacher lights up a butt and takes a drag, Waitin for when the last shall be first and the first shall be last(9-10) The preacher reference is clearly Casy, yet there is a biblical allusion made that is concurrent with idea behind the phrase The meek shall inherit the Earth (Beatitudes, Sermon on the Mount). The saying implies that those who forgo worldly power will be rewarded in the kingdom of heaven. This idea plays to the thoughts that both Springsteen and Steinbeck are trying to get across in their respective works and the selfless nature that Joad and Casy embody. Springsteens use of these two characters in his lyrics propel the thematic spirit of Steinbecks work while serving as an inspirational ideal for those he is trying to reach in his own society. Moreover, the overall similarities between the social climates of the early 1990s and 1930s allow Springsteen to illustrate the need for renewed spirit in his own time. The economic recession that characterized the early 1990s with skyrocketing unemployment, declines in housing starts, and slashes in social-welfare programs, mirrored greatly the atmosphere surrounding the Great Depression over six decades before. With over 34 million Americans below the poverty line, the nation was hardly a new world coming into view as characterized in George Bushs post-Gulf War speech. The presidents promising that the prospect of a new world order would utilize the principles of justice and fair play [to] protect the weak against the strong is denoted with sarcasm by Springsteen lyrics saying Shelter line stretchin round the corner, Welcome to the new world order(5-6). Springsteen utilizes a dire description of the disposed in 1990s America (as well as 1930s) through saying No home no job no rest (8) in order to exemplify their strife and the need for change. Steinbecks describing the Three hundred thousand, hungry and miserable; if they should ever know themselves, the land will be theirs(325) typifies the idea Springsteen is trying to get across; that if the disposed of his time attain a renewed will, they can engender change and end their strife. Both the The Ghost of Tom Joad and The Grapes of Wrath exhibit commentary on the social conditions of their time and the need for change among the people. Though the afore mentioned works have been written in vastly different eras, they comment on very similar social climates. Through creating parallels in the characterization of humanity, using Tom Joad and Jim Casy to embody that characterization and recognizing social similarities between the two time periods, Springsteen generates a work that calls for the return of the human spirit to a despondent society in the same vein Steinbeck does in The Grapes of Wrath.

Essay --

Recently, the topic of oil consumption and production has been thrust onto the world stage. As demand for oil increases internationally, the role of major producers will change dramatically. As a representative of Saudi Arabia, I will offer my position on these topics, and I will represent the views of my nation as clearly as possible. The first topic I’d like to address is OPEC’s control on global oil production, supply, and pricing. Right now, OPEC member nations control nearly 81% of crude oil reserves, compared to 19% of non-OPEC member nations (EIA.gov). Because we control such a large percentage of the total amount oil reserves in the world, we can effectively control prices through production. If we decrease production, prices rise, and if we increase production, prices fall. As a representative of both Saudi Arabia and OPEC as a whole, I believe that our control over world oil production and supply is both justified and correct. My country in particular controls nearly 1/5 of total world oil reserves, and acts as the largest exporter and producer of petroleum (EIA.gov). Therefore, we should have a significant amount of control over world oil prices, because we control such a large percentage of world oil reserves. We should be able to essentially control international oil prices, and cut off supply to any country we see fit. On the topic of our cooperation with OPEC, the current member nations need to reorganize and reassess our goals. Although we have set oil production allocations for each nation to ensure price stability and adequate supply, nations like Iran and Iraq have skewed production due to their unstable oil output and refusal to adhere to production quotas. In terms of my country’s position on non-OPEC produ... ...my, because OPEC has such a large influence on world oil supplies. Therefore, although Iraq and Iran have, in the past, taken action contrary to OPEC policy, we have to continue cooperating with them. These points of opposition against my country, although they may be justified, do not take into account Saudi Arabia’s political and economic situation. Because of this, they are short-sighted and unreasonable. At this conference, we hope to resolve outstanding foreign relations issues with countries around the world to both ensure continued oil exports and stable oil prices. We will not, however, make any concessions in terms of oil production and greenhouse gas emission, as any decrease in production would stunt our economy growth. Hopefully, we will be able to achieve our goals of mending foreign relations issues while sustaining our control over world oil prices.

Blackfeet: Native Americans in the United States and Blackfoot Tribe Essay

The Blackfeet or Blackfoot is a Native American tribe that was originally located in Canada, Montana, and Idaho. The majority of the tribe is located in Alberta, Canada, where three of the four Blackfeet bands are established. The Blackfeet can be found in the Great Plains, around many rivers and mountains. Some of these rivers include the Yellowstone River and the Missouri River. Also, just east of the Rocky Mountains, a major boundary in the past, members of the Blackfeet have been spotted. Although the area did not get much rainfall, the climate was relatively warm. Presently, a Blackfoot reservation can be located in Montana, east of the Glacier National Park. In the past the population was around 5,200 people, but has now grown to about 32,234 members. The Blackfeet took their weapons and the topic of warfare very seriously. They were the best hunters, fighters, and raiders in the Great Plains and often times found themselves at war with their rivals, the Shoshone. Regarding weapons, the Blackfeet traditionally used 3-foot long bows made of horn and arrows held in otter skin quivers. Other weapons included war clubs, guns, and buffalo hide shields. During a raid or battle, the Blackfoot warriors were honored for taking a horse or a scalp, but it was even better if they stole a gun. Before a battle, the Blackfoot tribe would do a variety of things, such as calling upon spiritual powers, singing war songs, and using face paint, lucky charms, and war medicine. People of the Blackfoot tribe wore a certain type of clothing. The woman donned long deerskin dresses, while the men clothed themselves in buckskin tunics with breechcloths that had leggings sewn into them. Most of the people wear feathers in their hair, but only for special occasions, like dances or festivals. Blackfoot dresses and war shirts were often decorated with porcupine quills, elk teeth, and beads. The entire tribe wore moccasins and buffalo hide robes in the winter. However, chiefs of the tribe wore a different type of clothing, sometimes tall feather headdresses and decorated robes. Today, the Blackfoot tribe can be found wearing modern clothing, like jeans. In order to feed their families and survive the Blackfeet had to hunt for their food. Buffalo meat was a staple in their diet. They prepared it by either boiling, roasting, or drying it. If dried, the buffalo meat was stored in rawhide pouches. Another staple was pemmican, a mixture of ground buffalo meat, service berries, and marrow grease. The Blackfeet used pemmican in the winter when live buffalo were scarce. While the Blackfeet men were out hunting large game, like deer, elk, moose, mountain sheep, antelope, and buffalo, the women could be found collecting roots, turnips, and camas bulbs. To supplement their diet, the Blackfeet preferred to use berries. The history and culture of the Blackfoot tribe provides valuable insight into the tribe’s peoples’ diet, warfare, clothing, and location. Through studying this tribe, present-day people are allowed to learn more about the importance of this particular tribe.

Hurricane Igor

When going to cnn. com I found that right away it had the link that I could click on to see all of the information about how Bermuda is bracing for hurricane Igor. Also, there are links that you can click on to view videos and live feed to see how bad it actually is. This site tells you everything you need to know such as sustained winds, the wind gust, and the latitude and longitude of the hurricane. The one thing I found interesting is it gives you a picture of the projected path that it is going. It also tells you what category, or size, the hurricane is. As of right now CNN is saying that hurricane Igor is going to affect the United States east coast over the weekend. CNN also gives you a link that you can recommend this website to people on your Facebook. This is a good thing on their part because with the Facebook link people can like it and see this article on your Facebook. They can see that you went to this site and they might look at it and like it too. This means more publicity for CNN and more people will view the top stories on there. CNN has a big article on how sever and damaging hurricane Igor is. CNN also tells you about any other hurricanes or tropical storms that were or are going to be dangerous to the east coast or Bermuda and what their projected paths are. When I went onto MSNBC. com I found the article right away, with big bold letters that say â€Å"Bermuda braces for ‘long and punishing’ Igor. † This right away attracted me to click on that headline so I can get more information on the weather and Igor. After clicking on the link there is a big picture of someone boarding their house up to keep it safe. Down at the bottom of the website it gives you three options that you can tell people about this story. You can email this story to a friend, you can share it on Facebook or you can share it on twitter. These are three main ways that people can spread this story to others so that they are aware of how sever the hurricane is. MSNBC. com also gives you a huge, well detailed article written by Elizabeth Roberts. She stated how sever the weather was in the beginning of the week. It was a category four in the beginning of the week and it has now gone down to a category two hurricane. The reporter talks about the sustained winds and the location of hurricane Igor. She tells you where it is headed and where it is going to impact. They also have this interactive tracker that shows you three different hurricanes and you can click on each one to find out how sever each one is and where it is headed. This gets updated every couple of minutes. You can also put in your address and it will give you the 5 day forecast. You can also click on a link that will give you archives of previous storms. FOXnews. com was one if the difficult websites for me. I went to their site and I didn’t see anything on hurricane Igor that caught my attention. I had to really look for this story, and I found it as I scrolled down and there is a little box that has the latest news, most read, and videos. The Bermuda story was far down the list and you had to click on the link to go to the story. When going into this article, there are no pictures of hurricane Igor, it is all words. This site gives you an article by Rick Leventhal, in which he writes about hurricane Igor. In this article he states that hurricane Igor is a category two hurricane and how it makes landfall with sustained winds near 110 miles per hour, gusting to 130. Fox news also tells you that the last major storm was back in 2003. So that is a paragraph that was interesting because it showed how they haven’t had one since then. It gives you how a hotel business has gone down by 50% since hurricane season started; this isn’t good for Bermudas economy. You cannot share this with anyone on face book or twitter but there is a place that you can leave comments and you can get follow up via email if anyone comments on this story. There is a link that you can click on that will take you to the author’s biography. It also gives you a list of all the articles he has written and there are someone other hurricanes on there. There are many similar things that all of these websites have such as telling everyone where the hurricane is located. It also describes in detail the wind gust and when it is suspected to hit the targeted area. Now when it comes to the difference there is a bunch of them. CNN from the beginning of the home page gives you a picture to look at, but also gives you a link to click on so you can view more. When you are looking on CNN you can see how they use bold writing when it comes to the sustained wind and wind gust, also the latitude and longitude. MSNBC on the other hand uses the hurricane interactive tracker to tell you all of that. I found that this is very detailed and very helpful. It is a different kind of tool that you can use to really see where hurricanes are going and who will be affected by them. MSNBC and CNN give you the option to send the information to someone by emailing, facebooking, or placing it on twitter. This helps them get more viewers and makes their rating go up for how many people view the website. Fox news on the other hand is not at all appealing for the weather. You have to really look for the article and when you find it, all it gives you is the article. The difference here is that there is not enough information for me about the hurricane, Igor.